Markers of the dominance of the ergotropic sympathetic system and neurotransmitter activity in projection onto socionic traits.

On experimental material it is shown that psychological extraversion in meaning is close or identical to the dominance of the ergotropic sympathetic system, and introversion – to the trophotropic parasympathetic system. Strengthening of central serotonergic activity leads to an increase in introversion, and based on the examined markers – also in intuition. There are also counterexamples indicating a connection of serotonergic activity with sensing. Strengthening of central M-cholinergic activity leads to an increase in sensing and, to a small degree, in extraversion. The participation of various mediobasal structures of the limbic brain in the formation of socionic traits, including extraversion-introversion and intuition-sensing, has been analyzed.

Keywords: differential psychology, neurophysiology, neurosciences, extraversion, intuition, ergotropic system, neurotransmitters, serotonin, acetylcholine, hippocampus, amygdalar complex.

Contents:

Markers of ergotropic dominance (predominance of ergotropic sympathetic response over trophotropic parasympathetic)

Table 1. Examined clusters of ergotropic dominance and their connection with the scale of extraversion-introversion (according to experimental data)

Serotonergic markers

Table 2. Examined clusters of reduced central serotonergic activity and their connection with the scales of extraversion-introversion and intuition-sensing (according to experimental data)

M-cholinergic markers

Table 3. Examined clusters of increased central M-cholinergic activity and their connection with the scales of extraversion-introversion and intuition-sensing (according to experimental data)

Table 4. Connection of the examined clusters with all 15 socionic traits (in percent of explained variance and taking into account the sign of correlation)

Table 5. Averaged projections on socionic traits for three groups of clusters: 1 – related to ergotropic dominance, 2 – to weakening of the central serotonergic system; 3 – to strengthening of the M-cholinergic system (projections are given in percentages of explained variance and taking into account the sign of correlation)

Possible involvement of mediobasal brain structures in mediating neurotransmitter influences and in the determination of the traits “extraversion–introversion” and “intuition–sensing”

Conclusions

Appendix: brief information for psychologists and socionists about the physiological terms used in the article

Literature

The list of vegetative and behavioral markers of ergotropic dominance, as well as manifestations of reduced serotonergic and increased M-cholinergic activity, was compiled by us from the literature (Wenger, 1941; Traugott et al., 1968; Suvorova, 1974; Hassett, 1981; Burnazyan, 1985). M-cholinergic markers were mainly considered as the opposite of the effects of the central M-cholinolytic amisil, or as typical effects of central M-cholinomimetics, for example, carbacholine.

For each selected marker, one or several questionnaire clusters were matched, based on the material of psychological (socionic) questionnaires, grouping a number of questionnaire items and most accurately characterizing the content of the given marker. Each cluster consisted of several primary questionnaire items (from 1 to 70) connected by similar content. The average number of subjects for which clusters were calculated is about 300 people in each case (from 200 to 500). In this work, the results of socionic questionnaires filled out by respondents for the purpose of clarifying their socionic diagnoses were used for the analysis of clusters. For each cluster, its projections on all socionic traits were calculated. As the final measure of connection with each socionic trait, the share in the total variance of projections onto all 15 traits accounted for by one specific trait was used, calculated as a percentage and taken with the sign of the corresponding correlation. To determine the sign of the pole and the magnitude of the socionic traits of respondents, both the TIMs of their information metabolism self-declared by the subjects (a priori declared TIMs) and the TIMs calculated from the questionnaires according to the procedure of data refinement and symmetrization developed by us (ultimately also based on the declared TIMs of the entire sample) were used. The traits were calculated according to the individual TIM profile. As an alternative third method of trait calculations, the procedure of calculating “images” of traits according to socionic rules was used (for example, the image of extraversion–introversion is the algebraic product of irrationality with statics, or of carefreeness with intuition, or of compliance with logic, etc.; as the final “image,” the average of the products in the seven theoretically possible pairs of traits was used). The results obtained by all methods differed insignificantly. In the tables given in the article, the average of these results was used.

The list of markers of ergotropic dominance and the corresponding list of empirical questionnaire clusters are given in Table 1. In Table 2 is given the list of markers and clusters characterizing the weakening of central serotonergic activity. Table 3 contains the list of markers and clusters of M-cholinergic activity. In Table 4 are given the projections on 15 socionic traits for all studied clusters (in accordance with their numbering from Tables 1–3). Finally, Table 5 contains the averaged projections on socionic traits for all three groups of clusters: those associated with ergotropic dominance, with weakening of the serotonergic system of the CNS, and with strengthening of the M-cholinergic system. The averaged projections in Tables 4 and 5 are given in percentages of variance attributable to the indicated trait (taking into account the sign of the correlation).

Markers of ergotropic dominance (predominance of ergotropic sympathetic response over trophotropic parasympathetic) {#markers-of-ergotropic-dominance-(predominance-of-ergotropic-sympathetic-response-over-trophotropic-parasympathetic)}

All markers of ergotropic dominance according to the results of the experiment can conditionally be divided into three groups.

The first group includes markers clearly positively correlated with extraversion and not correlated with intuition, or correlated with it negatively. These include high background pulse rate, pallor of the skin of the face (lack of tendency to hyperemia), dryness in the mouth (low salivation), ease of falling asleep and lack of tendency to insomnia, euphoria when intoxicated with alcohol, rapidly extinguishing orienting reaction to indifferent stimuli (non-triggering, not related to biological motivations), lack of tendency to bronchospasm and breathing difficulty, pronounced pilomotor reflexes (goosebumps and “goose skin” when touched), increased conflict-proneness and aggressiveness, increased motor activity, initiative, self-confidence and lack of modesty, talkativeness, composure and adequacy of behavior in traumatic and stressful situations. These markers of ergotropic dominance characterize, it should be assumed, the predominance of catecholaminergic (noradrenergic and dopaminergic) mediation systems simultaneously over serotonergic and cholinergic.

The second group includes markers weakly correlated with extraversion and negatively correlated with intuition. These include low emotional reactivity and good mechanical memory for dates, names, titles, etc. It can be assumed that the markers of this group are associated with increased activity of the cholinergic system and reduced activity of the serotonergic system.

The third group includes markers weakly connected with extraversion and strongly positively connected with intuition. These include poor appetite and reduced interest in food, sweating, tremor of the fingers. It can be assumed that in this case we are talking about the simultaneous strengthening of the work of the noradrenergic and central serotonergic systems, possibly with some weakening of the central M-cholinoreactive and dopaminergic systems, which also leads to relative ergotropic dominance.

Most of the markers of ergotropic dominance considered belong to the first group. Accordingly, when averaging all the markers of ergotropic predominance, it turns out that 65% of the variance of their projections onto 15 socionic traits falls on extraversion, and 9% each on logic and irrationality. The connection with the first trait is significant at the 0.1% level, with the other two – at the 5% level. Thus, there are serious grounds to identify psychological (more precisely, socionic) extraversion with the physiological dominance of the ergotropic system of CNS regulation. At the neurotransmitter level, this may be associated with a general increase in the activity of the catecholaminergic neuronal system, a weakening of the serotonergic, and some weakening of the M-cholinergic neuronal systems of the CNS.

It should be borne in mind that in the syndromes of ergotropic or trophotropic dominance many relatively independent brain structures participate, whose activity is connected with each other by far from 100% correlational links, therefore these syndromes may be internally heterogeneous, and “one extraversion is not like another” (likewise “one introversion is not like another”). For example, inertia and confusion in unforeseen situations are characteristic of all introverts except LSI and ESI. The orientation toward avoiding failure instead of a strategy of maximizing success is again characteristic of almost all introverts, but except for IEI. Blood rushes to the face (blushing, flushing) are also characteristic of most introverts, but for SLI they are completely uncharacteristic – they are more often found in its dual extravert IEE. Easily arising pilomotor reflex (goosebumps, “goose skin,” hair standing on end) is characteristic of most extraverts, especially LIE, ILE, SEE, and LSE, but for SLE it is little characteristic, etc. This, of course, in no way refutes the existence of a single factor of extraversion–introversion or ergotropic–trophotropic regulation. One must only remember that individual symptoms and markers may be under the control of other socionic traits besides extraversion–introversion.

Table 1. Examined clusters of ergotropic dominance and their connection with the scale of extraversion-introversion (according to experimental data) {#table-1.-examined-clusters-of-ergotropic-dominance-and-their-connection-with-the-scale-of-extraversion-introversion-(according-to-experimental-data)}

The evidence we obtained in favor of the identity of extraversion and ergotropic sympathetic dominance is not such a revelation. Corresponding statements and conclusions based on experimental data were encountered in the research of physiologists and psychologists earlier, but until now have remained little noticed by the scientific community. Thus, in 1941 Wenger (Wenger, 1941, 1942, 1948) reliably identified physiological markers falling with great weight into the factor of peripheral sympathetic dominance. It included low salivation, viscosity of saliva (density or percentage of solid residue), high heart rate, low variability of cardiac pause duration, background skin conductivity (associated with increased sweating), high level of metabolism, diastolic blood pressure, as well as systolic pressure with an inverse sign. The size of the pupil did not fall into the factor (as in many subsequent researchers of sympathetic markers), while breathing parameters and rapidly extinguishing dermographism fell into the second, so-called “muscular” factor (together with slowness of reactions, intense GSR, muscle relaxation, and high physical fatigue). Working with schoolchildren, Wenger made an expert observation that children with high indicators of parasympathetic system predominance showed more controlled behavior, were less emotionally expressive and more shy than children with high indicators of sympathetic dominance. This observation of Wenger is all the more important because his work was carried out at a very high methodological level and therefore deserves every trust. Both in the opinion of H. Eysenck (Eysenck, 1999) and in ours, Wenger’s observation allows one to connect the adrenergic sympathetic type with extraversion, and the parasympathetic type of subjects – with introversion. Later Wenger worked with adult subjects (pilots within army selection programs), and in these studies, in addition to purely physiological indicators, the results of testing cadets with Guilford’s thirteen-scale psychological questionnaire were used. Despite the extreme unreliability of the cadet sample in relation to sincere answers to the psychological questionnaire, mathematically rigorous correlation analysis in this case also largely confirmed Wenger’s conclusions about the connection of introversion with parasympathetic dominance, earlier made by him on the basis of observations of schoolchildren. The factors of depression, tendency to cyclothymia, social and cognitive introversion, measured with Guilford’s questionnaire, positively correlated with parasympathetic dominance.

V. D. Nebylitsyn (1976), as a characteristic of temperament, proposed activity (in content closely resembling, as can be seen further, socionic extraversion). According to V. D. Nebylitsyn, activity as a general temperamental trait manifests itself in motor skills, communication, and intellectual activity. According to E. P. Ilyin (2001), V. D. Nebylitsyn’s colleagues conducted two series of experiments, in one of which as motor activity were considered the individual optimal pace of motor acts, the individual’s tendency to diversify actions taken according to instructions, and the need for motor activity, which was understood as the subjects’ tendency to exceed the number of motor tasks performed beyond the minimally required by the experimenter. In the second series with other subjects, intellectual activity was measured: the criterion for it was the number of tasks solved by the subjects at will. Indicators of activity in each of the two experiments were compared with EEG indicators. It turned out that both forms of activity correlate with the same electroencephalographic indicator, namely the total energy in the beta-1 and beta-2 ranges of the frontal derivation. This EEG indicator is quite characteristic of the enhancement of ascending activating influences of the adrenergic ergotropic system within the mesencephalic reticular formation and posterior hypothalamus. If we recognize that in both cases of defining temperamental activity “by objective method” in V. D. Nebylitsyn’s laboratory extraversion was in fact being measured, then thereby the correlation of extraversion with the beta index and frontal cortical desynchronization, and consequently indirectly with the ergotropic activating system, receives some electrophysiological confirmation. However, EEG indicators, reflecting the current and variable functional state of the brain, capable moreover of quickly and variably restructuring its work, are extremely ill-suited for determining personality and temperamental traits. In Eysenck’s review (1999) this is convincingly shown: in about ten different EEG studies conducted by various authors in different years, for extraversion (as well as for other personality traits), no reliable and stable EEG markers were found. Therefore Nebylitsyn’s results, much as one would like to believe them, raise some doubt. Perhaps suitable markers could be found among the characteristics of evoked vertex potentials, but works studying their relationship with psychological temperamental traits are unknown to us.

In the work of V. V. Suvorova (1974), unfortunately on a small sample of subjects, it was also shown that the energy of the beta-1 and beta-2 rhythms of the electroencephalogram is higher, and the energy of the alpha and theta rhythms is lower in the group of individuals with predominance of sympathetic regulation (the balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic regulation was determined by a special psychological questionnaire based on life and behavioral indicators). But something else is more important. In this same work, based on the questionnaire used by the author, it was shown that traits usually used as markers of extraversion (talkativeness, increased motor activity under stress conditions, easy tolerance of overloads, shamelessness and untypicality of embarrassment) form a close correlational cluster with standard markers of peripheral sympathetic activity (pallor of the skin of the face, sweating, dryness in the throat, frequent pains in the solar plexus area, etc.).

Corcoran (Corcoran, 1964) attempted to find confirmation of Eysenck’s view of introversion as increased sensitivity to stimulation. From his point of view, he found this confirmation in the “lemon drop test”: if four drops of lemon juice are placed on the tongue, introverts (as determined by Eysenck’s questionnaire) secrete twice as much saliva as extraverts. H. Eysenck and his son repeated Corcoran’s experiments (Eysenck, 1999), and on a sample of 50 men and 50 women, the correlation between introversion and stimulated saliva secretion reached +0.70 – that is, very high values. From our point of view, sensitivity to stimulation may have nothing to do with it here. The amount of saliva secreted within the framework of unconditional salivary reflexes is a characteristic marker of the predominance of trophotropic parasympathetic activity (and the most stable one, invariably falling into the factor of parasympathetic dominance for very different researchers). Thus, in Corcoran’s and Eysenck’s experiments only the connection of introversion with peripheral parasympathetic tone, and extraversion with peripheral sympathetic tone, has in fact been convincingly proven, which at the CNS level confirms the connection of introversion with the trophotropic, and extraversion with the ergotropic regulatory system.

Thus, in the literature there is evidence in favor of the identity of extraversion and ergotropic dominance. Some of it, such as Corcoran’s experiments, can be considered very convincing. We have not found in the literature any results of experiments contradicting this view. Thus, the conclusion we made on the basis of psychological experiment about the identity of extraversion and relative ergotropic dominance, introversion and trophotropic dominance, receives additional confirmation.

Serotonergic markers {#serotonergic-markers}

Their list for experimental study was compiled by us from markers of reduced serotonergic activity of the CNS, which may be due either to decreased concentration of brain serotonin or to a reduced number of serotonin receptors in the brain. Averaging the markers of this group reveals a significant connection of the variance of their projections (p<0.01) by 33% with extraversion and by 38% with sensing, as well as weak, unreliable connections (each no more than 5% of variance) with logic, strategy, aristocracy, and negativism. From this it follows that serotonin receptors of the CNS make highly reliable contributions to introversion and intuition, and contributions approximately equal in magnitude. At the level of tendency, the connection of the central serotonergic innervation system with ethics, tactics, democracy, and positivism is expressed.

Most markers of weakened serotonergic activity have strong or weak positive connections with extraversion and strong or weak positive connections with sensing. With some degree of convention they can be divided into two subgroups.

The first subgroup includes markers primarily connected with extraversion and weakly connected with sensing. These include weakness of self-control and inhibition of undesirable forms of behavior, including a tendency toward aggressive and irritable-conflict reactions; high background muscle tone, absence of tendency toward stupor states and immobilization states; pronounced pilomotor reflexes and rapidly extinguishing orienting reaction to indifferent stimuli. A significant part of these markers can be explained simply by a decrease in serotonergic activity, or by a decrease in serotonergic activity against the background of increased noradrenergic activity.

The second subgroup includes markers weakly connected with extraversion but strongly connected with sensing. These include, in particular, good memory, direct eye contact in the process of communication, strengthening of focus on triggering stimuli (enhancement of biological motivations), and weakening of focus on situational irritants (as a result of which curiosity is also weakened). It can be assumed that the markers of this subgroup are primarily connected with a decrease in serotonergic activity against the background of increased M-cholinergic activity.

Thus, the conclusion suggests itself of a positive, stimulating effect of serotonergic activity on intuition, and an inhibiting effect on sensing. However, it is necessary to recall facts that contradict this point of view:

• adults who grew up with childhood autism (characterized by elevated levels of brain serotonin) usually have strictly concrete thinking, which to some extent contradicts the assumption of their “intuition”;

• the frequency of dreams is clearly positively linked with intuition, however it is known that serotonin suppresses the paradoxical phase of sleep with dreams;

• obsessive visual and auditory thought-images, as well as a number of other symptoms of the schizoid spectrum, correlate with intuition, however they are linked with the dominance of the ergotropic system over the trophotropic, and this should mean the advantage of the adrenergic system in comparison with the serotonergic;

• model psychoses with obsessiveness of thought-images (normally this marker is a correlate of intuition) can be caused both by bufotenin and lysergamide, which block serotonergic synapses and cause depression of the trophotropic system, and by mescaline and amphetamine, which cause hyperactivation of the ergotropic adrenergic system.

Markers of interest in situational irritants and reduction of weight of triggering biological motivations link intuition with high serotonergic activity. On the contrary, markers of obsessive thought-images, visual and auditory hallucinations, “blurring” of the associative process, reduction of its selectivity link intuition, it seems, with blocking of serotonergic activity. However, it is noteworthy that in both cases the empirically observed contribution of extraversion, and thus of the balance of ergotropic and trophotropic systems, is zero. But the contribution of extraversion becomes maximal, and the contribution of intuition or sensing – zero, when it comes to the speed of extinction of orienting reactions, and this speed is mainly governed by a high level of cholinergic activity. In connection with the latter fact, let us recall the results of N. F. Suvorov and V. V. Suvorova (1975). They showed that the lowest level of acetylcholine (ACh) in the hippocampus is observed during the period of the “reaction to novelty” of a stimulus and the orienting reaction. A low level of ACh leads to activation of hippocampal neurons and irradiation of excitation in the cortical representation of the corresponding analyzers. Thus, a high level of ACh contributes to the reduction of OR, better recognition of objects as “familiar.” A low level of ACh prevents recognition of objects as “familiar.” An initially high level of ACh quickly terminates exploratory reactions.

So how exactly does the activity of the main mediator systems of the CNS influence intuition? It seems that the M-cholinergic system mainly has a negative influence, increasing the narrow selectivity of the associative process, hindering the penetration of little-relevant reference memory images into consciousness, and promoting suppression of orienting reactions. The influence of monoamines – norepinephrine and serotonin – although undoubtedly present and in a number of cases clearly expressed, is not entirely unambiguous, and not yet completely clear in mechanisms, even in its prevailing sign.

Table 2. Examined clusters of reduced central serotonergic activity and their connection with the scales of extraversion-introversion and intuition-sensing (according to experimental data) {#table-2.-examined-clusters-of-reduced-central-serotonergic-activity-and-their-connection-with-the-scales-of-extraversion-introversion-and-intuition-sensing-(according-to-experimental-data)}

M-cholinergic markers {#m-cholinergic-markers}

Clusters characterizing increased M-cholinergic activity are quite clearly divided into two groups: into those linked simultaneously with intuition and introversion, and into those linked with sensing and extraversion (Table 3).

The first group includes almost all peripheral M-cholinergic effects (tremor, sweating, bronchospasm with a feeling of shortness of breath and suffocation, increased pain sensitivity, increased salivation, slowed pulse). This connection can, apparently, be explained by the linkage of peripheral M-cholinergic effects with increased serotonergic activity in the hypothalamus and, accordingly, with an increase in the activity of the trophotropic regulatory system as a whole, which leads to the predominance of parasympathetic effects of local cholinergic nature on the periphery. To this same group of clusters, by their correlational profile also tending toward intuition and introversion, belong the cluster of tendency toward doubt-hesitation and indecisiveness, as well as the cluster specific to increased levels of free brain acetylcholine, the cluster of anxious-defensive reactions (characterizing worry, suspiciousness, expectation of troubles, tendency toward obsessive fears, obsessive concerns, anxious fussiness, painful indecisiveness, aggressive impatience). The cholinergic conditioning of these behavioral traits, which make up the core of the last two clusters, follows from their rapid and effective suppression by amyzil – a central cholinolytic (Traugott et al., 1968). Similar traits (fear and fussy anxiety) manifest during a sharp accumulation of ACh in the CNS in the case of poisoning with organophosphorus compounds – blockers of the ACh-destroying enzyme cholinesterase. Taking into account the tendency of most anxious manifestations toward the cortex of the right temple, one can assume the connection of these two clusters with cholinergic activity in the right temporal lobe of the brain.

The second group of clusters combines the effects of good memory, accelerated pace of activity, high preservation and efficiency of “kinetic melodies” (consisting of a sequentially coordinated chain of various actions and provided by the premotor cortex). This same group includes markers of high differential sensitivity of speech hearing and good ability to isolate speech signal from noise, as well as increased interest in food, high sexual activity (and in general high focus on triggering stimuli), including high expression of biological motivations leading directly to the target object bypassing conditional and situational stimuli. Accordingly, this same group includes clusters of reduced curiosity toward situational (non-triggering) stimuli and absence of fixation on non-extinguishing orienting reactions provoked by hippocampal serotonin during play activity with the same objects. The second group of clusters thus splits into two main parts – connected with M-cholinergic support of premotor neocortex mechanisms, and with the support of memory mechanisms, extinction of orienting reactions and strengthening of biological motivations in the hippocampus. It can be assumed that in the premotor cortex and in the hippocampus, M-cholinergic activity is oppositional to serotonergic, playing an inhibitory role in relation to it. As a result, the second group of clusters (both parts), unlike the first group, is clearly correlated with extraversion and sensing.

Thus, M-cholinergic activity, unlike serotonergic, does not show a clearly predominant universal characteristic connection with temperament indicators (and socionic traits in particular). Peripheral M-cholinergic activity is mediated ultimately by the predominance of central serotonergic activity, ensuring the dominance of the trophotropic regulatory system and the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. Central serotonergic activity in this case explains the correlation of peripheral M-cholinergic effects with introversion and intuition. In the ancient hippocampal and new premotor cortex we are dealing with cholinergic markers describing direct processes in the CNS, and at the level of these structures cholinergic activity behaves in opposition to serotonergic, showing correlation with extraversion and sensing.

Table 3. Examined clusters of increased central M-cholinergic activity and their connection with the scales of extraversion-introversion and intuition-sensing (according to experimental data) {#table-3.-examined-clusters-of-increased-central-m-cholinergic-activity-and-their-connection-with-the-scales-of-extraversion-introversion-and-intuition-sensing-(according-to-experimental-data)}

A weaker, but equally heterogeneous connection is found between M-cholinergic clusters and other socionic traits.

The pole of irrationality turns out to be weakly connected with markers of preservation of kinetic melodies, i.e. complex organized sequences of movements (left premotor cortex) and the strength of biological motivations (hippocampus). The opposite pole of rationality is connected with clusters of strengthened defensive reactions (right temporal cortex?), good memory for recent events (hippocampus?), and the cluster of peripheral miosis (narrow pupils).

The pole of constructivism shows a connection with tremor and all cholinergic clusters of defensive reactions (doubts, anxious restlessness, etc.), while the opposite pole of emotivism is connected with clusters of hypersalivation (increased salivation), slowing of heart rhythm, and clusters of rapid extinction of orienting reactions to indifferent stimuli and decreased interest in non-triggering, conditional, or situational stimuli. At the same time, clusters characterizing increased attraction to triggering stimuli and strengthening of biological motivations turn out to be indifferent to the socionic trait, at the level of a weak tendency also remaining in the sphere of the pole of emotivism.

“Carefree” show high sensitivity to pain stimuli, have increased absolute and differential sensitivity of speech hearing, show a tendency toward bradycardia and increased salivation. “Prudent” (the opposite pole of the trait) show a connection with other peripheral markers of M-cholinoreactivity: difficulty breathing, narrow pupils.

Processors show a weak but reliable connection with a fairly long series of M-cholinergic markers: defensive reactions, sweating, sexual activity, feeling of suffocation. With the pole of result-oriented are connected only the marker of miosis (constricted pupils).

Aristocrats differ in high sensitivity of speech hearing and a relatively weak, although reliable, group tendency toward strengthening and generalization of motivations and drives (their increased strength, impatience, and emphasized dominance).

Dynamics show increased attraction to indifferent situational stimuli, increased orienting reactions (anticholinergic markers), and they also show a small group tendency toward hypersalivation (cholinergic marker).

Other socionic traits are connected with specific cholinergic effects even more weakly. Seriously, thus, one can speak only of two socionic traits: extraversion–introversion and intuition–sensing, showing significant connection of their poles with a representative set of cholinergic markers. At the same time, the number of markers connected with the poles of introversion and extraversion is approximately equal (with a small predominance of extraversion), while in the case of intuition–sensing, the largest part of markers connected with the cholinergic support of the old and new cortex ensures the pole of sensing. Connected with intuition are mainly only peripheral cholinergic effects, which can be explained by increased activity of the central trophotropic system (at the CNS level having mainly serotonergic mediation). If we assume predominant correlation of serotonergic mediation in the CNS with a shift of the “sensing–intuition” balance toward intuition (this issue cannot be considered fully resolved), then this can explain in the group of intuitives the group increase of a number of peripheral cholinergic effects associated with the trophotropic regulatory system.

Table 4. Connection of the examined clusters with all 15 socionic traits (in percent of explained variance and taking into account the sign of correlation) {#table-4.-connection-of-the-examined-clusters-with-all-15-socionic-traits-(in-percent-of-explained-variance-and-taking-into-account-the-sign-of-correlation)}

Table 5. Averaged projections on socionic traits for three groups of clusters: 1 – related to ergotropic dominance, 2 – to weakening of the central serotonergic system; 3 – to strengthening of the M-cholinergic system (projections are given in percentages of explained variance and taking into account the sign of correlation) {#table-5.-averaged-projections-on-socionic-traits-for-three-groups-of-clusters:-1-–-related-to-ergotropic-dominance,-2-–-to-weakening-of-the-central-serotonergic-system;-3-–-to-strengthening-of-the-m-cholinergic-system-(projections-are-given-in-percentages-of-explained-variance-and-taking-into-account-the-sign-of-correlation)}

Possible involvement of mediobasal brain structures in mediating neurotransmitter influences and in the determination of the traits “extraversion–introversion” and “intuition–sensing” {#possible-involvement-of-mediobasal-brain-structures-in-mediating-neurotransmitter-influences-and-in-the-determination-of-the-traits-“extraversion–introversion”-and-“intuition–sensing”}

First, let us consider, in light of the above, the influence on socionic traits of two symmetrical amygdalar complexes (one in each hemisphere), consisting of a series of nuclear formations with different neurotransmission and considered, despite their small size, extremely important motivational centers of the limbic brain. The amygdalar complexes undoubtedly influence the temperamental characteristics of a person.

A detailed review of the psychological features of patients with lesions in the amygdala zone (epileptic foci, tumors, and hemorrhages), as well as psychological shifts in patients after operations with unilateral or bilateral removal of the nuclei of the amygdalar complex for medical reasons, is contained in the works of S. V. Madorsky (Madorsky S. V., 1985). Many important data on the functions of various amygdala nuclei, their biochemical innervation, and connections with other brain structures were also obtained in studies of manic-depressive psychosis and reactive depressive states, and in psychopharmacological studies (see the work of Sinitsky V. N., 1986).

The human amygdala is a mass of gray matter about 13–14 mm in size, located deep in each temporal lobe and lying in front of the anterior end of the hippocampal foot, separated from it by a narrow ventricular fissure forming the apex of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle of the brain. There are two such formations (in the left and right hemispheres), i.e., the amygdalar complex is a paired organ. With its medial part, each amygdala is in such close contact with the cortex that distinguishing its cortical and ganglionic parts is practically impossible. Based on morphological studies, Johnston (1923) proposed dividing each lateral amygdalar complex into two nuclear groups – the corticomedial and the basolateral. Later, a significant difference was proven in the functional role of these groups, as well as their different neurotransmitter nature.

The activity of the basolateral group of amygdala nuclei is governed by serotonergic innervation (the main mediator is serotonin). Electrical stimulation of the basolateral nuclei leads to fear reactions, refusal of food, hyposexuality. Artificial pharmacological activation of the basolateral nuclei – for example, by the action of reserpine, which, according to G. A. Burnazyan (1985), leads to increased release of serotonin into diencephalic structures, including the amygdala and anterior hypothalamus – causes an intensification of the vital feeling of anguish, excessive grief, hopelessness, petrification, mental and motor inhibition, up to stuporous states. The corresponding form of depression is called melancholic. It is usually accompanied by peripheral parasympathicotonia (slowing of heart rate, decreased vascular tone, lowered blood pressure, dry skin, weakly expressed skin-galvanic reflex) and a decrease in catecholamines in blood and urine; the content of 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) in the blood remains within normal limits. The relative activity of the serotonergic system in these states turns out to be reliably higher than the adrenergic. Activation of the basolateral nuclei is usually correlated with activation of the anterior and lateral parts of the hypothalamus, caudal parts of the brainstem, and partly also the hippocampus, septum, and caudato-thalamic system. A significant part of these structures, in particular the anterior hypothalamus and hippocampus, are united with the basolateral nuclei of the amygdala by a common serotonergic mediation system. Thus, one can assume a certain correlated syndromic complex, including a number of subcortical structures. Combined activity of these structures in patients with melancholic depressive syndrome is accompanied by reciprocal suppression of activity of mesodiencephalic adrenergic structures (including the posterior hypothalamus), corticomedial nuclei of the amygdala, and suppression of the hypothalamo-adenohypophyseal system. The reduction in this case of hormonal as well as direct influences of the sympathetic system causes hypofunction of the thyroid gland.

In melancholic depression, pronounced cortical inhibition is observed in both signaling systems, but it is more pronounced in the second signaling system, as a result of which the focus of cortical activity shifts to the right hemisphere. In melancholic states, slowness of mental processes is typical.

Thus, stimulation of the basolateral group of amygdala nuclei leads to a full picture of trophotropic dominance and provides a psychological shift toward introversion. At the same time, a noticeable tendency to lower mood background is usually observed. Approximately the same occurs when stimulating the anterior hypothalamus, which has among hypothalamic divisions the most developed serotonergic innervation. Serotonin acts differently in the hippocampus, where activation of serotonergic terminals in most neurons leads to “inhibition” of hippocampal activity and, in turn, to a reduction of the usual inhibitory effects of the hippocampus on the reticular formation, which ultimately activates the ergotropic regulatory system and for this reason should be accompanied by additional secondary shifts toward extraversion and hypomania. Thus, in our opinion, overall brain serotonin can exert multidirectional influence on extraversion. The general concentration of brain serotonin stimulates the trophotropic system in the diencephalic zone and leads to an introverted shift; local concentration of serotonin specifically in the hippocampus, or an increase in the number of hippocampal serotonin receptors, indirectly (through removal of inhibition from the mesencephalic reticular formation) leads to the opposite, extraverted and possibly hypomanic shift. As a result, markers of resultant specific serotonergic activity in the hippocampus, such as reduced memory or behavioral targeting toward indifferent and situational stimuli instead of biologically motivated triggering ones, turn out to be correlated only with intuition, but not with introversion. This was confirmed in our experiment (Table 2; 4).

The second large group of amygdala nuclei is the group of the so-called corticomedial nuclei of the amygdala (anatomically located closer to the cortex and shifted toward the center of the brain, hence their name). With activation of the corticomedial nuclei, increased nervous and hormonal stimulation of thyroid function is observed. The activity of the corticomedial group of nuclei is governed (including controlled and inhibited) by the cholinergic mediation system (the main mediator is acetylcholine). Both central cholinolytics and melipramine, by suppressing the M-cholinoreactive system, exert an inhibitory effect on this group of nuclei and reduce their activity. Stimulation of this group of nuclei can lead (not always) to an anxious form of depression, characterized by subjective experience of unbearable anxiety, fear, threat to existence. Motor restlessness, confusion, and sometimes depressive “flight of ideas” are also typical. The corresponding depressive syndrome is usually accompanied by hypersympathicotonia in the periphery (including paleness of skin, sensation of chills, palpitations, heat, hand tremors, increased vascular tone, hypertension – with an increase especially of upper, systolic pressure, accelerated pulse, pronounced skin-galvanic reflex – with several high-amplitude oscillations up to its extinction). Unconditioned motor and vascular defensive reflexes in the relevant depressive patients are characterized by low excitability threshold, short latent period, large magnitude, and stability of reaction with repeated application of the stimulus. Increased excitability occurs both in motor and in sensory spheres. In the second signaling system inhibitory processes clearly prevail over excitatory, while in the first signaling system excitatory processes prevail over inhibitory. Overall, as in the melancholic type syndrome, predominance of activation in the right hemisphere is observed, which may be the cause of lowered mood (euphoric experiences are associated with the left hemisphere, depressive with the right). The central short-acting cholinolytic amyzil, by blocking excitation of M-cholinergic neurons in the nuclei of the corticomedial group, for the duration of its action completely eliminates the corresponding anxious-defensive symptomatology (see cluster No. 84–85), which indirectly proves the role of M-cholinergic neurons of the corticomedial group in the formation of anxious depressions, and most likely of Eysenck’s “neuroticism.”

In anxious-depressive syndrome, activation of the corticomedial group of amygdala nuclei is positively correlated also with increased activation of mesodiencephalic reticular structures with adrenergic mediation – the posterior hypothalamus, thalamus, mesencephalic reticular formation – with sharp accompanying hypersympathicotonia in the periphery. This corresponds to a picture of ergotropic dominance. Thus, central M-cholinergic and noradrenergic activations turn out to be positively connected in this case.

In the brain, reciprocal suppression of the nuclei of the basolateral part of the amygdala, hippocampus, septum, central gray matter of the rostral mesencephalic region, caudal reticular formation, anterior hypothalamus, and other brain structures exerting synchronizing inhibitory influence on the cerebral cortex and participating in parasympathicotonic peripheral effects occurs. A specific sign of activation of some nuclei of the corticomedial group of the amygdalar complex is apparently a sharp increase within the syndrome of the intensity and duration of the skin-galvanic reflex (Delgado J., 1971; Luhanina Ya. P., 1968; Allikmets L. Kh., 1964; Allikmets L. Kh. and Vahing V. A., 1970).

Thus, in anxious depression, adrenergic neurons are mainly involved in the excitation process, while in melancholic depression – serotonergic nerve cells. Central cholinergic neurons can be activated in either form of depression, which corresponds to a number of literature data on the ability of acetylcholine to perform in the brain the function of both excitatory and inhibitory mediator.

It is undeniable that for each of the two depressive syndromes chemical heterogeneity of regulatory processes in the brain is typical. For example, in anxious syndrome, activation occurs not only of adrenergic neurons of the posterior hypothalamus and mesencephalic reticular formation, but also of cholinergic neurons of the amygdala (namely in the corticomedial group of its nuclei). In melancholic depression (i.e., with psychomotor inhibition and affect of anguish), serotonergic neurons of the amygdala (basolateral group of nuclei) and anterior hypothalamus, cholinergic and serotonergic neurons of the hippocampus, etc., are activated. At the same time, in each form of depression a certain form of mediation predominates (V. N. Sinitsky, 1986).

Both forms of depression differ in their relation to the poles of extraversion–introversion. Anxious-agitated depression is associated with muscle tension, increased motor activity, activation of pituitary stress mechanisms, generalization of conditioned reflexes. All these are signs of extraversion. Melancholic depression is associated with muscle relaxation and adynamia, minimization of responses to external stimuli, absence of generalization of conditioned reflexes, decrease of defensive reflexes. These are signs of introversion.

The anatomy of the nuclear groups of the amygdala looks as follows. According to the most accepted classification of amygdalar nuclei for the human brain (Crosby, Humphrey, 1941), the corticomedial group of nuclei includes the central, cortical, medial nuclei and the nucleus of the terminal stria. The basolateral group includes the lateral, basal, accessory basal, and intercalated nuclei. The differentiation of individual amygdala nuclei begins in humans in early ontogenesis, during which the ratio between the sizes of the corticomedial and basolateral parts of the amygdalar complex gradually changes (Filimonov, 1958). The basolateral group (for which, recall, serotonergic innervation is characteristic, and excitation of some nuclei of which leads to melancholic depression with adynamia, peripheral parasympathicotonia, and thyroid hypofunction) develops in humans more strongly than in other mammals and by the end of ontogenesis reaches 81% of the total volume of the amygdalar complex (Chepurnov, Chepurnova, 1981). This is an important fact, since it allows one to assume that the overall functional maturity and activity of the amygdalar complex must bear some “imprint” of the traits inherent in stimulation of the basolateral group of nuclei. This means that overall stimulation of the amygdala should lead (in accordance with the activation properties of the basolateral group described above) rather to inhibitory influence on the cerebral cortex, causing, at least episodically, some laziness, relaxation, adynamia, motivational self-limitation, and enhanced control of biological motivations. This should also be observed in older ages compared to adolescents, whose reactions are more characterized by the features of excitation of the corticomedial group (increased biological motivations and their weak control, increased motor activity, aggressiveness, etc.). This age dependence does indeed exist, confirmed also in our experiments.

For epileptic discharges in the right amygdala, seizures of aggression, malice, anguish, sexual arousal, less often apathy and indifference to the environment, unpleasant smells or taste sensations are more characteristic, while for discharges in the left amygdala, states of fear, anxiety, and severe restlessness are more characteristic. In general, with lesions and irritations of the right amygdalar complex, affects of aggression and malice, hypersexuality and bulimia dominate, and with irritations of the left – affects of defense (anxiety, fear), reduced sexuality, and reduced appetite (Madorsky S. V., 1985). Comparing these features with the clusters of Table 4, it is easy to see that stimulation of the left-hemispheric amygdalar complex in its manifestations is closer to the pole of intuition, and stimulation of the right – to the pole of sensing. Thus, if the differences of the basolateral and corticomedial groups of amygdala nuclei run rather along the line of extraversion–introversion, then the differences of the left and right hemispheric complexes run more along the line of intuition–sensing.

Now let us consider the role of the hippocampus. Cholinergic activating influences in the hippocampus promote its activation, improve memory, direct behavior toward triggering stimuli, accelerate the extinction of orienting reactions and non-reinforced conditioned reactions. These properties correspond to strengthening of the sensory pole. In addition, the hippocampus activated by cholinergic terminals inhibits the mesencephalic reticular formation, which reduces the activity of the ergotropic division of the nonspecific CNS regulatory system. Therefore, this should lead to some shift toward introversion. On the contrary, serotonergic influences on the hippocampus prolong orienting reactions, direct attention to random and situational stimuli, worsen memory. In addition, they reduce associative selectivity (widen the filter for the penetration of reference memory images into consciousness). All this leads to growth of intuition. Due to weakening of inhibitory influences of the hippocampus on the ergotropic system, extraversion also increases.

Differences are traced not only in terms of cholino-serotonergic opposition, but also in terms of left–right asymmetry of the hippocampus. In the left hippocampus are located fragments with cholinergic innervation significantly enhancing pain sensitivity (Madorsky, 1985). High pain sensitivity is connected, according to our experimental data (Table 3; 4), mainly with high “carefreeness” (the pole of the eponymous socionic trait, opposite to prudence). To a lesser extent it is connected with intuition. Because of the connection with intuition, cholinergic activation of the left hippocampus either to a small extent contributes to intuition, or is indifferent to the poles of intuition–sensing, while cholinergic activation of the right hippocampus should, apparently, clearly “work” toward sensing. Increased cholinergic activity in the left hippocampus can be considered much more as one of the markers of “carefreeness” rather than of intuition. The latter, however, is only a hypothesis, expressed for the first time and on the basis of a single property (pain sensitivity), and therefore in need of more thorough investigation.

Conclusions: {#conclusions:}

1. The results of the experimental study indicate a high probability of the identity of socionic extraversion (at the psychological level of individual differences) and the pronounced dominance of the brain’s ergotropic sympathetic system (at the physiological level). The evolutionary-adaptive meaning of the ergotropic and trophotropic systems is different: the first serves the tasks of long-term mobilization of the body’s reserves for the purpose of active struggle, provides an energy-consuming and energy-spending behavioral strategy. The second as a whole serves the tasks of restoring and conserving energy resources, implements a strategy of energy saving, protection, sensory and motor limitation, and, if necessary, implements flexible and mobile short-term regulation. It is obvious that the dichotomy of extraverts–introverts, whose essence, according to the results of almost all psychological studies, boils down precisely to the opposition of energy-spending and energy-saving strategies, is the ideal candidate for the role of the “psychological face” for the physiological balance of the ergotropic and trophotropic regulatory systems. This was confirmed in the experiment. Extraverts have a permanently more tense and better adapted ergotropic system. In introverts the functioning of the trophotropic system is better expressed.

   Proceeding from known facts about the participation of CNS neurotransmitter systems in determining the balance of the ergotropic and trophotropic systems, one can assume that the catecholaminergic receptor system of the CNS participates predominantly in the formation of the pole of extraversion, and the serotonergic system – in the formation of the pole of introversion. Central M-cholinergic activity participates mainly in the formation of the pole of extraversion, but it also exerts introverted influences. Peripheral M-cholinergic activity is mainly a consequence of the strengthening of the trophotropic regulatory division caused by central serotonergic activity and therefore correlates with introversion.

2. The CNS serotonergic system simultaneously participates in the formation of two socionic traits: extraversion–introversion and intuition–sensing, and increased activity of the brain’s serotonergic system, on the material of the examined clusters, equally contributes to the formation of the poles of introversion and intuition. If the general trend of correlation of serotonergic activity with introversion raises little doubt and has no obvious counterexamples (with the exception of individual cases, for example, related to the role of serotonin in the hippocampus), then the correlation of the activity of serotonergic terminals with intuition is not so unambiguous and has counterexamples, the most important of which are the negative effect of serotonin on dreaming (frequent in intuitives) and the enhancement of productive symptoms of the schizoid spectrum, also correlated with intuition, in many model states of hyperdominance of the ergotropic system.

3. Central M-cholinergic activity participates mainly in the formation of the poles of extraversion and sensing, but its opposite influences are also often found. The absolute magnitudes of correlation of central M-cholinergic activity with the traits of extraversion–introversion and intuition–sensing are smaller than the corresponding correlations for central serotonergic activity (on the material of the examined markers). The most significant is the correlation of central M-cholinergic activity with sensing. The enhancing influence of central M-cholinergic activity on extraversion and sensing is mediated, among other things, in the hippocampal and new frontal premotor cortex. In addition, points of application of this influence may be the M-cholinergic receptors of the mesencephalic reticular formation, the hypothalamus, and the amygdalar complexes of the brain.

4. Analysis of the literature data and their comparison with the results of our experiment allow us to assume that activation of the serotonin-sensitive basolateral complexes of nuclei of either of the paired brain amygdalae leads to an increase in introversion, while activation of the choline-sensitive corticomedial nuclei of the amygdala leads to an increase in extraversion and is accompanied by a simultaneous increase in adrenergic activity of the brain and ergotropic dominance. Activation of the amygdalar complex of the left hemisphere presumably leads to some increase in intuition indicators, of the right – to an increase in sensing indicators. Strengthening of cholinergic influences in the hippocampus is overall of a sensory and, to a small extent, introverted character. On the contrary, strengthening of serotonergic influences in the hippocampus contributes to intuition (as evidenced by markers of targeting situational stimuli) and to a small extent to extraversion. Cholinergic activation of the left hippocampus, leading to an increase in pain sensitivity, can be considered as a hypothetical marker of the socionic trait “carefreeness” that requires additional verification and confirmation, since carefreeness is reliably associated with high pain sensitivity.

Appendix: brief information for psychologists and socionists about the physiological terms used in the article {#appendix:-brief-information-for-psychologists-and-socionists-about-the-physiological-terms-used-in-the-article}

Ergotropic sympathetic, trophotropic parasympathetic systems

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems (two mutually opposing divisions of the so-called autonomic nervous system) were initially discovered and studied purely anatomically. Sympathetic nerves depart from some sections of the spinal cord, and parasympathetic—from other sections. The nerves themselves are also arranged differently. In most cases, two nerves approach each organ of the body (except skeletal muscles): the sympathetic and the parasympathetic. The sympathetic nerve commands dilation of the pupil, the parasympathetic—its constriction. The sympathetic nerve relaxes the urinary bladder, the parasympathetic contracts it, and so on. Although the nerve fibers run through the body, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems begin in the brain, in the central nervous system. What on the periphery of the body turns into sympathetic nerve fibers in the CNS is called the ergotropic (that is, energy-consuming) regulatory system. The parasympathetic nervous system is born in the CNS from the trophotropic (energy-restoring) regulatory system.

The main function of the sympathetic ergotropic system is the mobilization of the entire organism in emergency circumstances (Hassett, 1981). The activity of the sympathetic system in comparison with the parasympathetic system is more diffuse (covering the whole body), and to stop its activity requires much more time than to cease the effects of the parasympathetic system. From an evolutionary point of view, this is understandable, since the sympathetic system exists for crisis circumstances (“fight and flight system”). Sternbach (1966) compared parasympathetic effects to shots from a rifle, and sympathetic—to bursts of machine-gun fire. Sympathetic responding is accompanied by a series of complex reactions, including the splitting of glycogen in the liver (the glucose formed thereby serves as an additional energy source), changes in blood circulation, and others. Decreased blood flow near the surface of the body reduces the likelihood of profuse bleeding when the skin is damaged, and the increased supply of blood to the deeper muscles stimulated by sympathetic influences allows greater physical effort to be developed (Hassett, 1981).

The parasympathetic system preserves and maintains the body’s basic resources; its action is short-term and local. The main difference between the systems is that the sympathetic system mobilizes the organism for action (catabolism), while the parasympathetic restores energy reserves in the organism (anabolism). In most cases the local effects of these systems are opposite to each other. The sympathetic nervous system accelerates heart rate, and the parasympathetic slows it. The sympathetic promotes the breakdown of glycogen in the liver, the parasympathetic increases blood flow to the gastrointestinal tract and stimulates the conversion of glucose into liver glycogen. Dilation of the pupil can be associated both with increased activity of the sympathetic system and with weakening of the action of the parasympathetic system (Hassett, 1981). Thus, almost every organ is approached by both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers; activation occurs along some, inhibition along others, and due to this flexible regulation is carried out.

Since in secondary sympathetic synapses in most cases norepinephrine operates, the sympathetic system is called, from the point of view of the mediator mechanism, the adrenergic system. The neurotransmitter of most secondary parasympathetic synapses is acetylcholine; therefore the parasympathetic system is often called cholinergic, and in the 1930s, when the exceptions to this rule were not yet known, the cholinergic system was even identified with the parasympathetic (it is now known that in the CNS, i.e., at the level of primary synapses, acetylcholine takes an active part in the formation of the sympathetic nervous system, and on the periphery the sympathetic nerves that approach the sweat glands also have cholinergic rather than adrenergic mediation). Nevertheless, at the level of peripheral nerve fibers, the correspondence of cholinergic mediation to parasympathetic nerve fibers is largely maintained. Acetylcholine is rapidly inactivated by the enzyme cholinesterase, so parasympathetic effects are much more labile and mobile in time than sympathetic ones (Hassett, 1981). As already mentioned, there are some exceptions to the “assignment” of neurotransmitters to the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. Thus, the sweat glands are innervated by sympathetic fibers, but in their postganglionic link these fibers are activated by acetylcholine, not norepinephrine. There are also exceptions to the rule of “dual control” of each target organ. Thus, the mentioned adrenal glands are innervated exclusively by sympathetic fibers; parasympathetic neurons do not approach them. The same applies to the heart and sweat glands. Conversely, the lacrimal glands are controlled only by the parasympathetic system.

It should be taken into account that within each system the individual physiological markers specific to their activity (tendency to increase or decrease blood pressure, abundance of fluid in tear and salivary secretions, etc.) may be very weakly correlated with each other, although the overall positive correlation remains. Thus, according to our experimental data, the correlations between background indicators of heart rate, sweating, and the average diameter of the pupil (all markers of sympathetic activity) do not exceed 0.2–0.3 even by objective indicators, while at the level of questionnaire self-report by subjects the correlations turn out to be even lower and do not exceed 0.15–0.18, although in large samples even such insignificant positive correlations turn out to be reliable. In some subjects, habitually high average values of heart rate or blood pressure (sympathetic signs) may be accompanied by a constantly narrow pupil, abundant salivation, etc. (parasympathetic signs), i.e., markers associated with different target organs may reflect a mosaic-variegated picture of habitual sympathetic or parasympathetic preferences that do not fit into a single clear trend. This does not refute, however, the fact that the overall tendency of predominance of the influence of the sympathetic or parasympathetic autonomic nervous systems in most people persistently exists, but it manifests itself primarily not at the level of peripheral effects, but at the level of the CNS.

At the level of the CNS, the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are closely linked with the work of the hypothalamus, having their representations in it. The hypothalamus is part of the limbic system, which as a whole is responsible for the regulation of emotional-motivational behavior, and at the same time the main subcortical center of regulation of autonomic functions. Its cells are directly sensitive to the slightest changes in the humoral environment; the hypothalamus is the main center ensuring balance and constancy (homeostasis) of the internal environment of the body. With its irritation, both sympathetic and parasympathetic reactions are recorded. Since the 1930s, numerous scientific data have accumulated indicating a predominant (although far from 100%) connection of the anterior parts of the hypothalamus with the parasympathetic system, and of the posterior parts of the hypothalamus adjacent to the reticular formation—with the sympathetic regulatory system.

The principal division of the hypothalamus into two parts, the posterior, predominantly associated with sympathetic regulation, and the anterior, gravitating toward parasympathetic regulation, goes back to the works of Beattie et al. (1930), in which the tuberal and anterior regions of the hypothalamus were considered parasympathetic divisions: with irritation of these structures, increased motility of the stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder, slowing of heart rate, etc., were observed. In the posterior hypothalamus these authors found mechanisms for controlling the sympathetic nervous system and the secretion of adrenaline. Developing these studies, Hess (1949, 1956) came to the conclusion that there are two antagonistic zones in the region of the diencephalon: the trophotropic, or parasympathetic, and the ergotropic, or sympathetic. According to Hess’s results, the ergotropic zone is localized in the posterior hypothalamus; its irritation is accompanied by effects typical of general excitation of the sympathetic system: increased blood pressure, mydriasis (pupil dilation), increased heart rate, increased and deepened respiration, increased motor activity, enhanced activity of skeletal muscles, awakening from sleep, activation of the psyche, activation of peripheral sympathetic reactions, rage reactions, etc. The trophotropic zone is located in the rostral (nasal, anterior) parts of the hypothalamus and in the so-called preoptic area; its irritation strengthens parasympathetic effects: miosis, i.e., pupil constriction, enhanced intestinal peristalsis, vasodilation (expansion of vessels), bronchoconstriction, slowing of pulse and breathing; it decreases motor activity and reactivity to external stimuli (i.e., leads to adynamia), causes calm, drowsiness and a drowsy state close to natural sleep (but, very importantly, not a stuporous state).

After Hess, most subsequent researchers consider that the hypothalamic mechanisms of integration of ergotropic and trophotropic reactions are distributed diffusely in all parts of the hypothalamus, though with a predominance of trophotropic zones and individual trophotropic neurons in the anterior parts, and ergotropic—in the posterior parts of the hypothalamus (Waldman, 1969; Vein, Solovyova, 1973; Baklavadzhyan, 1977).

Hess’s idea received its confirmation in psychopharmacology when it was established that the neuroleptic reserpine accurately reproduces the effect of stimulation of the trophotropic system (increasing in the diencephalic region the amount of free brain mediator serotonin), and the “disleptic” lysergamide reproduces the effects of stimulating the ergotropic system (although in fact it merely blocks serotonergic synapses of the trophotropic system). On the basis of these data, Brodie et al. (1963) proposed their hypothesis that serotonin is the central chemical mediator of the trophotropic system, and adrenaline—that of the ergotropic. As a result, the similarity of the central action of such different neuroleptics as aminazine and reserpine also received an explanation—reserpine increases the amount of free serotonin available to synaptic clefts, thereby stimulating the trophotropic system, and aminazine blocks the ergotropic system. As a result of the antagonism of the systems, two different mechanisms of neuroleptic action lead to the same end result. A similar convergence of results occurs in the case of “anti-neuroleptics”: on the one hand lysergamide and bufotenin, on the other—mescaline and amphetamine. These substances belong to different chemical types but generate very similar reversible psychoses. Lysergamide and bufotenin block serotonin in the synapses of the trophotropic system, while mescaline and amphetamine directly and very strongly stimulate the ergotropic system. And this, despite the different mechanism of action, again leads to the same end result.

Thus, the concepts of the trophotropic and ergotropic systems, their antagonism, localization and mechanisms of action are confirmed not only by the experience of neurophysiologists but also by the long history and achievements of modern psychopharmacology.

In our present work it is shown, in particular, that the most powerful psychological factor (the factor of extraversion–introversion) very accurately “fits” the most powerful physiological factor, namely the balance of the ergotropic and trophotropic regulatory systems of the CNS. This result is very important, since it should put an end to empty disputes among psychologists about “extraversion according to Eysenck,” “extraversion according to Jung,” etc. Any extraversion ultimately gravitates toward this physiological balance and, in its psychological language, merely reflects the dilemma between the organism’s energy-consuming and energy-restoring strategies. The result obtained is all the more interesting because it was obtained for socionic extraversion, which, according to the intention of C. Jung, and after him I. Briggs-Myers and A. Augustinavichiute, was supposedly not to reflect energy expenditure/consumption, not an orientation toward struggle or toward deaf defense, but some rather vague psychological orientation of the individual “outward” or “inward.” And still—everything converged to the same thing.

Neurotransmitters

These are complex organic molecules that act as mediators in the transmission of neural excitation (or inhibition) across the synaptic cleft from one neuron to another. Quite a few neurotransmitters are known today, but the main ones are considered to be three transmitters of the chemical group of monoamines (dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin) and acetylcholine, which has a completely different nature. Dopamine and norepinephrine together are called catecholamines. Norepinephrine is indeed derived from dopamine, and in general they have much in common.

Neurotransmitters are produced mainly in limited brainstem areas, and then, through neurons extending from these structures, are carried to the necessary places—in particular, to the cerebral cortex.

The activity of some neurotransmitter system (for example, the serotonergic system) may be related both to the concentration of available serotonin in the brain and to the number of active, “working” serotonin receptors in synaptic clefts, as well as to the sensitivity of these receptors. As we see, not everything comes down to the “bare” concentration of the transmitter.

Along nerve pathways, switches from one transmitter to another are possible (that is, excitation from a cholinergic nerve can pass to a noradrenergic one, or vice versa, etc.).

Each of the named transmitters can also exist in different forms. For example, its molecule may be bound to a protein, or may not be bound, and the proteins may differ, and so on. Correspondingly, receptors for each transmitter (i.e., targets in synapses where that transmitter is indispensable) are also divided into groups. For example, there are alpha- and beta-receptors for norepinephrine. Acetylcholine receptors are also divided into two large groups: muscarine-sensitive (M-receptors) and nicotine-sensitive (N-receptors). M-receptors are the most important in the CNS in terms of providing mental functions.

Despite these complexities, neurons united by the same receptors and neurotransmitter still have much in common—if only because neurons of the same transmitter group are most closely connected to each other and usually “feed” on the transmitter from one and the same source. Therefore, there exist certain markers by which one can judge the activity of neurons of only one system, for example, M-cholinergic, serotonergic, etc., or fairly large and relatively independent parts of such a system (for example, serotonergic neurons of the hippocampus—even though the hippocampal cortex is extensive and consists of many independent fragments, its serotonergic neurons, wherever they work, still have quite a lot in common in their functions). Examples of markers are given in Tables 1–3 of the article. It may happen that one marker is associated at once with two or even more neurotransmitter systems. This can occur if the final link by which we judge the meaning of the marker (for example, hand tremor or skin sweating) can be provided in different ways. Thus, increased sweating can be caused both by enhanced activity of peripheral cholinergic transmission (the final stage of the path to the sweat glands on the skin has a cholinergic nature) and by a general increase in the ergotropic adrenergic regulatory system—it is precisely the one that sends the initial impulses to the sweat glands.

The analysis of the participation of various neurotransmitter systems in the formation of any psychological trait is extremely important for science. First, it allows tracing the interconnections of different brain structures involved in ensuring the trait. Second, the influence on the brain’s neurotransmitter systems through various pharmacological agents is the most accessible and powerful way of experimental study of the nature of mental functions, and a more informative way than the clinic of local brain lesions. Third, such analysis is also practically important—after all, if something in human behavior needs to be changed or corrected, “chemical bullets”—psychopharmacological drugs—are mainly used.

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February 2007

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